The Unfinished free essay sample

The Societies of the West: most arid territory contained wettest, lushest lat plains/ high mountains many people The Western Tribes: Indians- most important western population before white migration most indigineous some forced west of mississippi pattern of civilization developed 300,000 indians lived on pacific coast before arrival of spanish settlers support through fishing, foraging, simple agriculture. Peublo’s in south west established permanent settlement **plains indians** made up of many tribes/ languages farmers less vs. buffalo hunter horse bison/ beffalo provided economy flesh- food; skin- materials, used all parts plains warriors whites biggest foes mid 19th c ioux, arapaho, cheyene, -powerful alliance greatest â€Å"tribe† ecological- economic decline vulnerable to disease **indian disadvantages** 1840’s- long term battle; fall economically and industry Hispanic New Mexico: 1840’s. U. S acquired mexican residents farming/ trading 17th C more recent- cattle/ sheep ranching anglo americans established territory ignoring the 50,000 hipanics worried land would be confiscated 1847 taos indians rebelled killed new gov/ anglo american officials subdues by US army US organized gov in 1850 US broke power of tibes led to hispanic migration 1880’s-90’s railroads ew economic activity nre mexican immigration looking for work got lowest paying least stable jobs Hispanic. We will write a custom essay sample on The Unfinished or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page

Scaffold in Scarlet Letter Symbolism essays

Scaffold in Scarlet Letter Symbolism essays The framework of that instrument of discipline, so fashioned as to confine the human head in its tight grasp, and thus hold it up to the public gaze (9). These words help describe the ominous place known as the scaffold. Throughout the Scarlet Letter, the scaffold is a reoccurring symbol that symbolizes human nature throughout the course of the book. In addition to being a symbol of shame and guilt, the scaffold is a form of public punishment and humiliation. Furthermore, the scaffold reveals the development of the story and character involvement with the sin of adultery. The scaffold symbolizes many aspects of human nature throughout the course of the book. The scaffold symbolizes the shame and guilt of sin along with love and punishment. For example, when Hester committed adultery with Dimmesdale, the sin was committed out of love. Hester followed her human nature and heart when she committed the sin. After Hester is convicted of adultery, she is portrayed as an outcast of society. When Hester is seen on the scaffold, she hides her scarlet letter because the letter is viewed as a symbol of sin, shame, guilt, and punishment. Hesters guilt and shame are shown by the way that she stands on the scaffold. She doesnt hold herself in a high manner; however, she slouches and tries to hide from the crowd. While standing on the scaffold, Hester feels alone, isolated, and as if the world is out to get her. Thousands of emotions and thoughts run through Hesters head while she is on the scaffold. In addition to being a symbol of shame and guilt, the scaffold is a form of public punishment and humiliation. Hester is forced to stand in front of her peers and be harassed for the sin she has committed out of love. Hawthorne described how Hester felt as she headed towards the scaffold: She perchance underwent an agony from every footstep of those that thronged to see her, as if her heart had been flung into t...

Interview paper Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Interview paper - Assignment Example noted that she didn’t consider herself as a religious person, because she believed that religion and church were secondary things and her faith was the most important for her. However, she called herself Presbyterian, as she has been raised in this religion confession by her parents and just got used to identify herself with it. Presbyterian Church is one of the most numerous Protestant confessions on the territory of the United States. Alabama State, where Sarah lives with her family, is mostly inhabited by Protestants and Presbyterian Church commands a large part of protestant population of the state (Balmer & Winner 290). When we started talking about the religion itself Sarah said that there was a time when she considered changing her religion into Catholicism, because it seemed to her that a religion should bring discipline and she believed that it must have more rituals and religious traditions. However, in some time she realized that the main advantage of her religion was that it didn’t require any mediums and even didn’t require attending church in order to connect with the Lord. Presbyterian Church has two main ritual ceremonies which are the ceremony of Christianizing and the blessed ordinance (Balmer & Winner 290). Sarah was Christianized when she turned 21, as according to her church tradition, each parishioner should come to Jesus by oneself and the ceremony is supposed to symbolize start of the relationships between the Lord and a person. Thus when she was 21 years old Sarah realized that she was ready to establish these relationships and that she was absolutely sure about the fact that her faith was not going to be changed ever. Concerning the roots of her faith Sarah is considered to have very typical for Protestantism beliefs about God and His place in her life. She believes that her faith is guided by Holy Bible and that what is written there is the absolute truth. Whenever Sarah doesn’t know what to do in any situation of her life,

Should America have stronger Gun Control laws Term Paper

Should America have stronger Gun Control laws - Term Paper Example The debate seldom applies to hunter’s rights. However, outlawing handguns outright would affect hunters as well as people that simply wish to protect themselves. The Second Amendment to the U.S. Constitution states, â€Å"A well-regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a Free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed† (â€Å"The Constitution†, 2006). This, as were all of the first ten amendments to the Constitution, was added by the Founding Fathers so as to provide a more clear definition of the specific rights guaranteed to Americans. Gun control advocates consider the Second Amendment to be â€Å"obsolete; or is intended solely to guard against suppression of state militias by the central government and therefore restricted in scope by that intent; or does not guarantee a right that is absolute, but one that can be limited by reasonable requirements† (Krouse, 2002). However, they only question the need for people to own firearms that are not primarily designed for sporting purposes such as hunting. Obviously, the right to own arms was of supreme importance to the Founders given that it was listed second only after the freedom of religion and speech was documented in the First Amendment. The Founders knew that by ensuring the right to own arms, citizens would have the ability to protect themselves from that which might endanger their life, liberty or pursuit of happiness. This could include bodily protection from persons and animals or from an oppressive government that threatened the freedoms outlined in the Constitution. â€Å"The Second Amendment reflects the founders’ belief that an armed citizenry, called the ‘general militia’ was a necessary precaution against tyranny by our own government and its army. The idea that government has a constitutional right to disarm the general citizenry is totally foreign to the intent of the Constitution’s framersâ₠¬  (Reynolds & Caruth III, 1992). Attempting to disarm criminals is a great plan in some fairy-tale land but is a fruitless venture in the real world. â€Å"The ratio of people who commit handgun crimes each year to handguns is 1:400; that of handgun homicides to handguns is 1:3,600. Because the ratio of handguns to handgun criminals is so high, the criminals supply would continue with barely an interruption† (Department of Commerce, 1986: 171). The prohibition of guns in an effort to diminish criminal activity is as reasonable solution in much the same way the prohibition of alcohol would diminish the occurrences of driving while intoxicated (Kopel, 1988). Gun-control advocates argue that handguns serve no purpose except to shoot people. Any hunter will tell you that this is untrue. This underscores the lack of knowledge these advocates possess concerning the activity they denounce. Handguns are bought mainly for reasons of self-defense but nearly 20 percent buy handguns to use for sport-shooting, target practice and about 15 percent buy handguns as collector’s items. Hunters regularly use handguns as a protection against snakes and to hunt game animals (Aagard, 1987: 32). Anti-Thesis The prohibition of guns in an effort to diminish criminal activity is as reasonable solution in much the same way the prohibition of alcohol would diminish the occurrences of driving while intoxicated. The concept that the easy access to firearms has an important impact on the homicide rates in this country is supported by the preponderance of the evidence.

Describe the mechanisms by which astrocytes control the neutronal Essay

Describe the mechanisms by which astrocytes control the neutronal environment and, using appropriate examples, discuss their importance for neuronal function in health and disease - Essay Example In this article, the role of astrocytes in maintaining the neuronal environment in the brain has been explored with reference to health and disease in human beings. Astrocytes are a type glial cells in the brain and the spinal cord which are star-shaped. They are also known as astrocytic glial cells. They serve many functions, the most important of which are nutrient supply to nervous tissue, biochemical support of endothelial cells which form the blood-brain barrier, maintenance of the balance of the extracellular ions and taking part in the process of repair and regeneration of the central nervous system following various injuries (Magistretti and Ransom, 2008). There re mainly 3 forms of astrocytes. They are fibrous astrocytes, protoplasmic astrocytes and radial astrocytes. Fibrous astrocytes are basically positioned in the white matter. They have few organelles. The cellular processes are 50-60 in number, long and unbranched (Magistretti and Ransom, 2008). When in close proximity, they physically connect the cells to the outerside of the capillary wall. The protoplasmic astrocytes are mainly found in the grey matter of the brain. In contras t to the fibrous cells, they have many organelles and have short, stubby and severely branched cellular processes. These processes are in contact with the blood vessels and also the pial surface. They also surround the neurons. The end-feet of these astrocytes cover the intraparenchymal surface completely and express glucose transporters Glu T type-1 (Magistretti and Ransom, 2008). Thus these cells predominantly function to take-up glucose. Fibrous astrocytes contain more intermediate filaments than protoplasmic astrocytes. The radial glia are mainly found in the vicinity of the ventricles. While some processes abut the piamater, other processes lie deep inside the gray mater. Some examples of radial astrocytes are Bergmann glia cells and Mueller cells of the retina.

Examining The 1974 Guildford Pub Bombings Criminology Essay

Examining The 1974 Guildford Pub Bombings Criminology Essay The Guildford pub bombings took place on 5th October 1974. The Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA) has successfully detonated two bombs in two different public houses in Guildford. Those pubs were chosen due to its British Army personnel. Bombings killed four soldiers, one civilian and wounded 65 people. The Police faced massive pressure to identify and arrest PIRA bombers. Two months later, in December 1974, police arrested the Guildford Four: Gerry Conlon Paul Hill Patrick Armstrong Carole Richardson There were convicted for bombings and spend 15 years in the prison. The prosecution relied only on their confession as the main evidence. However, the Guildfords confessions were collected under pressure and by coercion. It included torture, threats against the family, 48 hours of detention, not recording the evidence supporting the witness statement and his alibi. The case was investigated again by the police and new evidence came into account. The one of detectives found a typed note from the one of interviews, which were edited, changed and deleted later on by the police during the first investigation. It can be concluded that the police manipulated with evidences to present the case as they wanted to. The Guildford Four were released in October 1989 and their conviction was quashed (Carrabine, Cox, Lee, South and Plummer 2008, Moisidis 2008, Reiner 2000, Rozenberg 1994, Savage and Milne 2007 and Whitton 1998). The role of criminal investigation procedures in miscarriages of justice and their impact Misconduct is a broad topic and can be described as a serious breach of duty and trust. It can include violence, fraud, theft, sexual harassment, gross incompetence, distorting and destroying evidence, serious negligence, drug use and dealing, perjury and discrimination (Punch 2009). In more specific sense, misconduct of police actions can be defined and associated with breaking the internal disciplinary regulations. Due to the occupational culture, there are many available opportunities for misconduct during the criminal investigation. Police officers have to deal on the daily basis with tasks that generate aggression and violence. If they make an error in their judgment, that may lead to overreaction. The different types of misconduct include: corruption, brutality and deviance (Mollen Commission 1994 and Punch 2009). Miscarriages of justice in most of the cases are linked and identified with wrongful convictions (Savage and Milne 2007). They occur when the innocent person has been convicted for the crime that he/she did not commit, the correct verdict has not been said, as there was a denial of the truth (Kyle 2004 and Nobles and Schiff 2000). The main types of miscarriages of justice include: Fabrication of evidence, Allegation of intimidation and violence during interrogation, Unreliable identification of an offender by the police or witnesses, Unreliable expert evidence, Unreliable confessions resulting from police pressure or the vulnerability of suspect, Non-disclosure of evidence by the police or prosecution, The conduct of the trial, Problems associated with appeals procedures (Savage and Milne 2007 and Rothlein 2008). From the other hand, miscarriages of justice ware in most cases associated with Irish terrorism in the 1970s (Mullin 1990). In that time, police officers would see it as a moral duty for miscarriage of justice to justify greater good for society (Punch 2009). That was also the timeline when cases of the Birmingham Six, the Gunros Three, the Guildford Four, the Bridgewater Four, the Maguire Seven, Judith Ward or John Joseph Boyle, came to light that pointed out miscarriages of justice to community and legal system (Reiner 2000). In the case of the Guildford Fours, the confession was taken under pressure and coercion, it was also the only one evidence that found them guilty. From the law enforcements points of view, the crucial concern and aim during the criminal investigation has been to obtain a confession from the main suspect. Traditionally, police officers tend to see the confession as the bedrock of the criminal investigation and warranty to the successful case in the court where the guilty conviction can be given (Maguire 2003 and Sanders and Young 2003). The importance of ethics and morals to criminal investigative processes Ethical policing is based on the universal expectations of approach and behaviour that administrate basics norms of human interactions with others. Ethical policing does not concentrate on morality of police officers and the institution of policing; it refers to morality that is reflected through variety of roles and different institutional purposes. Ethical policing is not directly concentrated on the morality of police officers in their private life, but it is concentrated on the way they act and react when providing police services on duty (Kleinig2009). Miscarriages of justice negatively affect the process of criminal investigation. However, the nature and role of ethics in the control of policing powers and policing process was one of the major developments in policing during the recent years (Wright 2007). The compromise between the high ethical standards and values of criminal investigation is typically labelled as the noble cause corruption statement which links closely with miscarriages of justice and the criminal investigation (Reiner 2000). Traditional corruption can be identifying as misuse of the professional position, usually abuse of the position of trust and power, which aims to achieve economic, sexual or otherwise personal gains. Noble cause corruption is more threatening type of corruption then traditional corruption, even though is less obvious. It can involve wide range of different types of police officers, both rotten apple and the golden apple. Noble cause corruption is seen as a mindset that allows to belief that the ends justify the means and for the greater good of the society. It is the ethical dilemma between the process of solving the case or the end results (Bayley 2010 and Crank and Caldero 2004). This can explain that closed mindsets and stereotypical point of view about suspects during the criminal investigation process and miscarriages of justice are closely linked (Savage and Milne 2007). In some extreme cases it is possible to see police officers who act and became as a full-time criminal due to their unethical and misconduct of actions (Leuci 2004). Corruption in policing happens when police officers care too much about their work and they become emotionally involved in process of taking bad guys of the streets. Their judgments becoming subjective based on their emotions. They believe that their inappropriate action will be justified with the positive and successful outcome (Crank and Caldero 2004). Miscarriages of justice are base on doubtful convictions, but the other area of miscarriage of justice in relation to criminal investigation closure plays important role problematic actions, that lead to the miscarriage of justice at the first place (Savage and Milne 2007). In case of the Guildford Four it was fabrication of evidence about suspects innocence and his alibi to arrest and charge others. They also experienced intimidation, torture, threats about their family and providing fabricated confession from the witness. Actions of the police officers aimed at putting in prison people responsible for the death of 5 and wounding of 65, but it should not be done through all available costs. It is necessary to mention, that no matter how appealing and tempting, it is always against the law to break the rules for greater good. The opposite way of thinking would be expose the abuse of the position of authority and power, it would also undermine the trust and also affect public freedom and liberty (Rothlein 2008 and Savage and Milne 2007). The importance of the professionalization of criminal investigations Police professionalization can be defined as the process by which policing actions became a profession. Police professionalization can be described by following characteristics: It is an organised body of knowledge that is frequently improved, Involved a prolonged training, Offers the best service to its clients, Functions originally and controls its members, Creates its community of followers through professional requirements, Inflicts a compulsory code of ethics and behaviours, Provides universal standards of practice, Provides full professionalism (Lanyon 2009). Policing professionalization will only be successful if its primary function will be knowledge, rather than functioning as political, organizational and economic agency. It means that the higher education and continuous development is another way of training the officers. However, counter-argument for police professionalization is that the background and the nature of policing require officers to deal with dirty jobs that involve a physical dimension. It would be more useful to have muscular and brave officers, rather than educated and brainy officers (Lanyon 2009 and Stelfox 2008). The organised body of knowledge must provide training and evidence-based research based on integrated proficiency supported by the practice amongst police officer (National Centre for Policing Excellence 2005). The role of police is complex and diverse, but never motionless and inactive. Also if police will not be able to deal with complex and intellectually challenging characteristics of policing, then they will have to face routine and ordinary side of the police occupation (Lanyon 2009, Stelfox 2007 and Stelfox 2008). The connection between miscarriages of justice and reforms of professionalization practices are direct. The main examples include: Protection for person under interview (Fisher 1977 and Zander 1995), Right to communicate with a solicitor (Fisher 1977), The recording of the interview with suspect (Sekar 1997), The fair treatment of young people and mental disordered people (Fisher 1977). The protection for people when interviewing will prevent police officers from using force and coercion, threats and/or torture to receive statement. This and the right to communicate with a solicitor were the main concerns of Philips Commission and are fully covered by the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984. The recording of the interview with a suspect is also the central element of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984. In 2005 the Association of Chief Police Officers launched Police Reform Act 2002, which included programme on the Professionalizing the Investigative Process (PIP). PIPs aim was to develop the investigative process through training, improvement and development of police officers who are engaged in the criminal investigation process (National Centre for Policing Excellence 2005). The role of the state with regards to criminal investigation The role of the state is extremely important when comes to the criminal investigation process. The Act of Parliament controls and regulates police powers in England and Wales to combat crime and provided codes of practice, was created in 1984, the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984. PACE is mainly concentrated on: The police powers to search an individual, premises or a vehicle without making an arrest first, Need to make a record of a stop or encounter, Powers to gain entry to those premises, The handling of objects seizes form those searches, The treatment of suspects in custody, Handling of detention, interviewing the suspect, recording the interview, identification of people in relation to investigative offences, keeping of accurate and reliable criminal records, powers of arrest, Terrorist situation, The specific legislation covering the conduct of criminal investigation is contains in the Criminal Procedures and Investigative Act 1996 (Home Office 2010, Kyle 2004, Sekar 1997 and Zander 1995). In conclusion, the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 aims to create the balance between police powers in England and Wales and rights of the members of the public. The supervision, management and investigation of normal criminal investigation and that of a critical incident Critical incident can be described as any event in which usefulness and efficiency of the policing reaction is expected to have important and major result on the self-confidence of the victim, victims family and the community. The main focus on critical incidents was created by the Stephan Lawrence Inquiry. However critical incidents were part of policing and criminal investigation since its beginning. Also it is necessary to improve and maintain stability and trust in policing in those cases, as public distinguish police intentions through action, response and priorities (Alison and Crego 2008 and Grieve 2008). The main three characteristics of the critical incident are: Fast-time pressure to resolve the case, partial information about the incident, Quickly changing state of incident. Those problematic characteristics make critical incidents serious, tricky and difficult to manage. It involves an understanding of the problem and complication of the incident. The decisions are mostly taken under pressure in doubtful, undecided and unproven surrounding. Managing of critical incidents can be unhelpfully affected by: Failure of the communication with the victim, Collapse of communication with family and community, Lack of appropriate communication with other officers, Real or perceived policing, Mistakes with carrying out the investigation (Alison and Crego 2008 and Grieve 2008). To avoid failure during investigating a critical incident, it is necessary to follow earlier prepared plan: It may include creation of operational issues to set up minimum standards of control, Creation of groups based on management structures to deal with different problems at the same time and look at the previous findings from the different point of view, Offer an advice to the family or a victim by family liaison officers as the reinsurance about police actions, response and priorities, Look at the different events can be experienced by different communities, Keep records and justification of any decisions and changes made during the conflict incident, Debrief offices about current situation and progress of the incident (Alison and Crego 2008 and Grieve 2008). In the other words, the critical incident can have terrible, catastrophic and tragic consequences for police, victim or victims family and community if was handled badly (Newburn, Williamson and Wright 2007). Management and supervision during the normal, low-profile case differs from the critical incidents style. Criminal investigation management can be divided into different way of managing and supervision of the incident (Harfield, 2008). Intelligence-Led Policing (ILP) is express through theory in The National Intelligence Model (NIM). This style of management is used to establish which crimes should be investigated and by whom or other more appropriate interventions. The ILP transmit NIM to investigate the main perception of informing holistic, by taking no notice of volume crime performance. The Statutory Framework of Investigative Powers includes pre-arrest and post-arrest investigation actions towards the normal incident. Both of those actions are protected by Human Rights from misuse of state powers and support of investigatory decisions. Managing Evidence involves citizens cooperation and use of coercive powers to collect relevant material. Management of Key Resources is closely linked with managing of evidence and securing the evidence. Key resources can be collected from staff (e.g. forensic scientist, pathologists or behavioural psychologist) and can include use of different skills (e.g. interview skills, detective skills or house-to-house inquire). Management and supervision of key resources will include taking a statement, reading a statement, searching the crime scene, interviewing the suspect and victim (Harfield, 2008). References: Alison, L. and Crego, J. (2008) Policing Critical Incidents: Leadership and Critical Incident Management, Willan Publishing Bayley, B. (2010) Noble cause corruption: Do the ends justify the means?, http://www.policeone.com/chiefs-sheriffs/articles/2003646-Noble-cause-corruption-Do-the-ends-justify-the-means (accessed on 08/11/2010) Caldero, M. A. and Crank, J. P (2004) Police Ethics: The Corruption of Noble Cause, Anderson Publication Carrabine, E, Cox, P, Lee, M, South, N. and Plummer, K. (2008) Criminology: A Sociological Introduction, Second Edition, Routledge Fisher, sir H. (1977) The Conflict Case: Report, London: HMSO Grieve, J. (2008) Critical Incidents in Newburn, T. And Neyround, P. (eds.) Dictionary of Policing, Willan Publishing Harfield, C. (2008) Criminal Investigation in Newburn, T. and Neyround, P. (eds.) Dictionary of Policing, Willan Publishing Home Office (2010) The Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (PACE) and accompanying codes of practice, http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/police/powers/pace-codes (accessed on 08/11/2010) Kleing, J. (2009) Ethical Policing in Wakefield, A, and Fleming, J. The Sage Dictionary of Policing, Sage Kyle, D. (2004) Correcting Miscarriages of Justice: The role of the Criminal Cases Review Commission, Drake Law Review, Volume 52 Lanyon, I. (2009) Professionalization in Wakefield, A, and Fleming, J. The Sage Dictionary of Policing, Sage Leuci, R. (2004) All the Centurions, New York: Harper Collins Maguire, M. (2003) Criminal Investigation and Crime Control in Newburn, T. (eds.) Handbook of Policing, Willan Publishing Moisidis, C. (2008) Criminal Discovery: From truth to proof and back again, Institute of Criminology Press Mollen Commission (1994) The City of New York of Corruption and the Anti-Corruption Procedures of the Police Department, New York: City of New York Mullin, C. (1990) Error of Judgment: The truth about the Birmingham bombings, Dublin: Poolbeg National Centre for Policing Excellence (2005) Practice Advice on Core Investigative Doctrine, Wyboston: NCPE Newburn, T, Williamson, T. and Wright, A. (Eds.) (2007) The Handbook of Criminal Investigation, Willan Publishing Nobles, R. and Schiff, D. (2000) Understanding Miscarriages of Justice: Law, the media and the inevitability of a crisis, Oxford: Oxford University Press OPSI (2006) The Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984, http://www.statutelaw.gov.uk/content.aspx?parentActiveTextDocId=1871554ActiveTextDocId=1871558 (accessed on 08/11/2010) Punch, M. (2009) Misconduct in Wakefield, A, and Fleming, J. The Sage Dictionary of Policing, Sage Reiner, R. (2000) The Politics of the Police, 3rd edition, Oxford: Clarendon Press Rothlein, S. (2008) Noble Cause Corruption, Public Agency Training Council Rozenberg, J. (1994) The Search for Justice, London: Sceptre Sanders, A. and Young, R. (2003) Police Powers in Newburn, T. (Eds.) The Handbook of Policing, Willan Publishing Savage, S. P. and Milne, B. (2007) Miscarriages of Justice in Newburn, T, Williamson, T. and Wright, A. (Eds.) (2007) The Handbook of Criminal Investigation, Willan Publishing Sekar, S. (1997) Fitted In: The Cardiff Three and the Lynette White Inquiry, London: The Fitted in Project Stelfox, P. (2007) Professionalising investigative process, in Newburn, T. (eds.) Handbook of Criminal Investigation, Willan Publishing Stelfox, P. (2008) Professionalization in Newburn, T. and Neyround, P. (eds.) Dictionary of Policing, Willan Publishing Whitton, E. (1998) The Cartel: Lawyer and their nine magic tricks, Tower Books Wright, A. (2007) in Newburn, T, Williamson, T. And Wright, A. (Eds.) The Handbook of Criminal Investigation, Willan Publishing Zander, M. (1995) The Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984, 3rd edition, London: HMSO

Technology Trends and Issues :: essays research papers fc

Defining Technological Literacy Given the current state of technology, a researcher should have little difficulty in finding relevant definitions that embody a spirited understanding of underlying technical and societal interactions that craft a view of the technically literate person. As an exercise, extracting the common elements from various experts’ definitions of technological literacy should result in a generalized perspective that would provide a foundation supporting further literacy definitions for aspects of technology such as computers or genetics. However, this is easier than it sounds. As Gagel (1997) confirms, â€Å"defining technological literacy has proven to be an unexpectedly complex and difficult task†. The difficulty in defining technological literacy is exposed by a number of factors. One factor relates to understanding perspective and determining whether the term is best defined by putting the emphasis on â€Å"technology† or â€Å"literacy† or whether the subject is best approached laterally. Indeed, Gagel describes the technological literacy from a technology perspective as opposed to defining literacy and then establishing parameters supporting technological literacy. Perhaps this approach contributed to the author’s difficulty in defining the term. As technology is so diverse and crosses many boundaries, perhaps the definition of technological literacy should do likewise, and not be restricted to either a â€Å"technology† or â€Å"literacy† perspective. Another factor contributing to the difficulty in defining technological literacy involves the improperly weighting of computer influence on the term’s definition. In a speech given by former President, Bill Clinton, this misunderstanding is propagated further. He states, â€Å"Today, technological literacy – computer skills and the ability to use computers and other technology to improve learning, productivity and performance – is a new basic that our students must master. â€Å" (Clinton, n.d.) Clearly, this mindset is remiss and precludes the contribution of myriad other technologies affecting our daily lives. According to Harrison, â€Å"Computer literacy is but a subset of technological literacy, but if this mindset is not encouraged, then the richness of technological literacy will not be passed on to next generations. As technologists, we have the daunting task of reversing this rapidly flowing river.† (Harrison, 2000) So, the question is how to define â€Å"technological literacy† without being trapped in too narrow a perspective and without utilizing a specific technology to add meaning to the term. It is important that society controls technology for it to serve us purposefully in our daily lives and lifestyle in general. For us to control technology, an understanding and knowledge is required to allow us to make informative decisions on how it will affect our lives.